[Syntax] 2. X-Bar Syntax: Cross-Categorial Generalisations

[Syntax] 2. X-Bar Syntax: Cross-Categorial Generalisations

 

 

3.1 Heads, Complements and Spcifiers

 

(2) She proposed [NP an analysis of the sentence]

(6) She proposed to analyse the sentence.

 

(2)에서 analysis는 Head이며, Head는 뒤따르는 성분과 strong bond를 형성한다. 즉, PP of the sentence 는 명사 analysis 를 무엇이 분석 되어지는지를 명시한다는 점에서 보충한다. 그리고 이 경우, 명사 analysis 와 Complement of the sentence 는 (6)에서와 같이 Verb + Complement 와 비교되어질 수 있다. 

 

 

수형도로 나타내었을 때. Head와 Complement의 관게는 다음과 같이 나타낼 수 있다.

 

 

 

하지만 Head의 앞에 붙는 not, an, so, quite, much 등은? 이러한 요소들은 Specifiers(Spec) 이라고 부르며, 수형도는 다음과 같이 확장된다.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Head와 Complement를 이어주면서, Specifier와 sister인 '?' node, 즉 phrase(XP)와 head(X)의 중간에 있는 node를 X' (X-bar'라고 부른다. 

 

 

XP, X', X는 각각 projections of the Head (Head의 투영한다는 의미)이라고 표현하며, 모든 phrase는 이 세 가지 구조를 모두 포함한다.

 

- XP: the maximal projection of the Head, a double-bar projection

- X': a single bar projection

- X: a zero bar projection (or lexical projection) 

 

 

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Typical Specifiers for the Major Phrase Types

- NP: determiners

- VP: negative elements

- AP: degree adverbs

- PP: adverbs

 

 

Typical Complements for the Major Phrase Types

- NP: PP, Clause, NP

- VP: NP, Clause, PP, AP

- AP: PP, Clause

- PP: NP, PP, Cluase

 

Typical Adjuncts for the Major Phrase Types

- NP:  AP, NP, PP, Clause

- VP: AdvP, PP, Clause

- AP: AdvP, PP

- PP: AdvP, PP

 

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3.2 Adjuncts

 

(1) The defendants denied the charge: they claim that they did [VP not destroy the garden deliberately]

 

AdvP deliberately 는 detroy the garden을 수식, Adjunct 역할을 한다.

 

 

⇒ Adjuncts are adjoined to a bar-level category in tree structures.

⇒ Adjuncts are always sisters of bar-level categories in phrases.

⇒ Complements are always sisters of Heads.

 

⇒ Adjuncts can be stacked.

Complement는 개수가 정해져 있고(대부분 최대 3개를 넘지 않음), specifier는 일반적으로 recursive하지 않음

 

⇒ Complements must be adjacent to their Heads.

 

 

 

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3.4 Complements vs. Adjuncts: Extraposition (Postposing)

 

(1)(a) a student came to see me yesterday [with long hair]

     (b) *a student came to see me yesterday [of Physics]

 

⇒ PP Adjuncts can be extraposed from their Heads more freely than PP Complements.

 

 

※예외

 

(2)(a) [A review of my latest book] has just appeared

     (b) [A review ______ ] has just appeared of my latest book

 

(2b)는 정문

Adjunction rule (Extraposition from NP) [트포 p448] It applies to move a PP or S-bar contained within an NP to the end of the S containing it. NP 속에 포함된 PP 혹은 S-bar는 NP를 포함하고 있는 S의 끝으로 이동할 수 있다.

 

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3.5 Complements vs. Adjuncts: Preposing

 

(1)(a) [What branch of Physics] are you a student of?

     (b) *[What kind of hair] are you a student with?

 

 

⇒ An NP which is the Object of a Prepsition heading  a Complement PP can be preposed more freely than an NP which is the Object of a Preposition heading an Adjunct PP.

 

⇒ An NP which is part of an Adjunct cannot be preposed.

 

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3.6 The Differences between Complements and Adjuncts

 

(1)(a) a student [of Physics] (= Complement)

     (b) a student [with long hair] (= Adjunct)

 

(2)(a) a student [of Physics] [with long hair]

     (b) *a student [of Physics] [with long hair]

 

⇒ Complement phrase must precede the Adjunct phrase.

 

 

(3)(a) a student [with long hair] [with short arms]

     (b) *a student [of Physics] [of Chemistry]

 

⇒ PP Adjuncts can be stacked but PP Complements cannot.

 

 

(4) a student [of physics] and [of Chemistry]

(5) a student [with long hair] and [with short arms]

 

(6)(a) *a student [of physics] and [with long hair]

     (b) *a student [with long hair] and [of physics]

 

⇒ A Complement PP cannot be coordinated with an Adjunct PP.

⇒ An Adjunct PP cannot be coordinated with a Complement PP .

 

 

(7)(a) a student ______ came to see me yesterday [with long hair]

     (b) *a student ______ came to see me yesterday [of Physics]

 

⇒ PP Adjuncts can be extraposed from their Heads more freely than PP Complements.

 

(8)(a) [What kind of Physics] are you a student of?

     (b) *[What kind of hair] are you a student with?

 

⇒ An NP which is the Object of a Preposition heading a Complement can be preposed more freely than an NP which is the Object of a Preposition heading an Adjunct PP.